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THE SCIENCE

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At Glucose Goddess, our mission is to make cutting edge science accessible to all of you. We are scientists, not doctors, and we read on a continual basis the newest scientific discoveries done by amazing research teams across the world, and we summarize them into easy tips that you can apply to your life if you want to. They are all listed below.

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Thousands of doctors, dietitians, practitioners, nurses, coaches, and more, use our content in their practice, to make sure their patients and clients get the latest science. If that is you, feel absolutely free to use any content that we share, it’s free and public.

Why we should all learn to balance our glucose levels

Because reducing sugar intake is a global priority:

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  • The World Health Organization has clearly emphasized the importance of reducing sugar intake. In its 2015 guide, "Guideline: Sugars Intake for Adults and Children," the WHO recommends limiting free sugars to less than 10% of daily total energy intake, with a stricter goal of less than 5% for additional health benefits. The WHO highlights sugar reduction as essential for preventing obesity and dental diseases globally.

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  • The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) released a report titled "Diet, Nutrition, and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases," which emphasizes reducing sugar consumption to combat the rise of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The FAO points out that excessive sugar intake is a global health issue requiring increased attention.

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The Glucose Goddess Method provides simple tips to 1) reduce sugar intake, 2) lessen the impact of sugar when consumed, 3) increase vegetable consumption, and 4) encourage physical activity. These guidelines are based on the impact of carbohydrates and sugars on blood glucose levels. Indeed, the intake of carbohydrates and sugar leads to a post-meal increase in blood glucose. Reducing blood sugar spikes equates to lowering the amount of sugar and carbohydrates consumed.

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As such, balancing glucose levels is important for everyone:

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If you have type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, prediabetes, or another type of diabetes, like 1 billion people in the world, balancing your glucose levels is key to being able to live a long healthy life, and to increase your chances of putting prediabetes or type 2 diabetes into remission. 




If you don't have type 2 diabetes, learning about your glucose levels and how to reduce your glucose spikes will help you avoid developing insulin resistance, prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. Indeed, high glucose levels within the healthy range make you much more likely to get prediabetes or diabetes as you age, as fasting glucose levels increase with age. This pattern is also seen in children's fasting glucose levels. (Nguyen, Quoc Manh, et al., 2010). As we see it, ​telling someone without diabetes that they should not learn to balance their glucose levels is like telling a person with healthy teeth that they shouldn't worry about brushing and flossing, because they don't have cavities yet.



If you don't have type 2 diabetes, beyond preventing type 2 diabetes, science shows that balancing your glucose levels can help: cravings, constant hunger, fatigue, brain fog, hormonal and fertility issues, skin conditions, wrinkles, poor sleep, menopause symptoms, mental health symptoms, immune system. Avoiding spikes also reduces inflammation and slows down glycation (ageing). In people without diabetes, each glucose spike increases heart disease risk. In the long term, steadying your glucose levels also reduces the risk of Alzheimer's disease, fatty liver disease, and cancer. You will find all the scientific references below.

If you have type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, prediabetes, or another type of diabetes, like 1 billion people in the world, balancing your glucose levels is key to being able to live a long healthy life, and to increase your chances of putting prediabetes or type 2 diabetes into remission. 




If you don't have type 2 diabetes, learning about your glucose levels and how to reduce your glucose spikes will help you avoid developing insulin resistance, prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. Indeed, high glucose levels within the healthy range make you much more likely to get prediabetes or diabetes as you age, as fasting glucose levels increase with age. This pattern is also seen in children's fasting glucose levels. (Nguyen, Quoc Manh, et al., 2010). As we see it, ​telling someone without diabetes that they should not learn to balance their glucose levels is like telling a person with healthy teeth that they shouldn't worry about brushing and flossing, because they don't have cavities yet.



If you don't have type 2 diabetes, beyond preventing type 2 diabetes, science shows that balancing your glucose levels can help: cravings, constant hunger, fatigue, brain fog, hormonal and fertility issues, skin conditions, wrinkles, poor sleep, menopause symptoms, mental health symptoms, immune system. Avoiding spikes also reduces inflammation and slows down glycation (ageing). In people without diabetes, each glucose spike increases heart disease risk. In the long term, steadying your glucose levels also reduces the risk of Alzheimer's disease, fatty liver disease, and cancer. You will find all the scientific references below.

Evidence for the importance of lower fasting glucose levels in people without diabetes

It's common to think that as long as your fasting glucose is within the "healthy" range, you have nothing to do. In fact, studies show us that even within the "healthy" fasting glucose levels range (100mg/dL per the ADA), a lower number (<85-90mg/dL) is associated with better health outcomes. This is an argument for glucose management in healthy individuals.

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  • In this study following 17,000 healthy participants for 11 years, the risk of death increased with average glucose levels, even below the non diabetic range. Pfister, R., et al. "No evidence of an increased mortality risk associated with low levels of glycated haemoglobin in a non-diabetic UK population." Diabetologia 54 (2011): 2025-2032, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-011-2162-0 

  • In 1 million healthy Korean adults, the risks of cardiac problems were lowest at fasting serum glucose levels of ∼90 mg/dL and increased sharply above these levels in both men and women. Park, Chanshin, et al. "Fasting glucose level and the risk of incident atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases." Diabetes care 36.7 (2013): 1988-1993, https://diabetesjournals.org/care/article/36/7/1988/33101/Fasting-Glucose-Level-and-the-Risk-of-Incident 

  • In 2000 people without diabetes, men in the highest glucose quartile (fasting blood glucose > 85 mg/dl) had a significantly higher mortality rate from cardiovascular diseases compared with those in the three lowest quartiles. Bjørnholt, JØRGEN V., et al. "Fasting blood glucose: an underestimated risk factor for cardiovascular death. Results from a 22-year follow-up of healthy nondiabetic men." Diabetes care 22.1 (1999): 45-49, https://diabetesjournals.org/care/article/22/1/45/19692/Fasting-blood-glucose-an-underestimated-risk

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What the graphs you see are 

Let’s take a look at the glucose graphs you see throughout Glucose Goddess content, like this one:

These graphs are here to illustrate scientific papers and make the discoveries done by research teams across the world visual. For instance, the graph above is illustrating this scientific paper.

 

Here is our process: if, for example, we come across a study that shows on a large scale that walking after eating reduces the glucose spike of a meal, we create a glucose graph, testing this principle on our own body, to illustrate the paper. It’s just a way to communicate the scientific findings. No conclusions are ever drawn from a n=1 experiment, and no conclusions are drawn from anyone's personal data. That would be unscientific.

 

On instagram, you can scroll through the panels on a post to see the scientific paper that the glucose graph is illustrating. 

Why spikes are worse for the body than a higher but steady glucose level

Avoiding spikes is important for all of us, to feel better today and prevent disease tomorrow.

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  • Joana Araújo et al., "Prevalence of optimal metabolic health in American adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009–2016," Metabolic syndrome and related disorders 17, no. 1 (2019): 46-52, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30484738/.

 

 

  • Benjamin Bikman, Why We Get Sick: The Hidden Epidemic at the Root of Most Chronic Disease and How to Fight It (New York: BenBella, 2020).

 

  • Robert Lustig, Metabolical: The Lure and the Lies of Processed Food, Nutrition, and Modern Medicine (New York: Harper Wave, 2021).

It’s the variability caused by glucose spikes that is problematic.

 

 

 

 

 

What is the optimal fasting glucose level?

Per the American Diabetes Association, a fasting glucose level of < 100 mg/dL is considered normal. But normal may not be optimal. Studies show that <85 mg/dL may be optimal, and that avoiding spikes is important.

 

 

  • Jørgen Bjørnholt et al., "Fasting blood glucose: an underestimated risk factor for cardiovascular death. Results from a 22-year follow-up of healthy nondiabetic men," Diabetes care 22, no. 1 (1999): 45-49, https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/22/1/45.

 

 

 

What happens during a glucose spike?

1. When we spike, our mitochondria become overwhelmed and start producing chemicals called free radicals. Free radicals harm our cells, mutate our DNA, lead to oxidative stress and inflammation. Sweet spikes do this even more than starchy spikes. Inflammation is the root cause of most diseases. Three out of five people will die of an inflammation-based disease.

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2. When we spike, our body ages. Each glucose spike leads to glycation, which is the process of aging of our body. Glycation leads to many age-related issues, from cataracts to Alzheimer’s. When we slow down glycation, we live a longer, healthier life.

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3. When we spike, insulin gets released, and excess glucose gets stored in our liver, muscles, and fat cells. This is one of the ways that we gain fat on our body. When the spike comes from a sweet food (as opposed to a starchy one), it also contains fructose. Excess fructose has its own detrimental impact on our body.

 

  • Lubert Stryer, "Fatty acid metabolism,” In: Biochemistry (Fourth ed.) (New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1995), pp. 603–628.

 

 

 

 

  • Stryer L (1995). Biochemistry (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 773–74.

The role of insulin in body fat. 

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The Glucose Goddess Method

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The benefits of flattening our glucose curves

  • Rebecca Thurston et al., "Vasomotor symptoms and insulin resistance in the study of women's health across the nation," The journal of clinical endocrinology & metabolism 97, no. 10 (2012): 3487-3494, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22851488/.

  • James E Gangwisch et al., "High glycemic index and glycemic load diets as risk factors for insomnia: analyses from the Women's Health Initiative," The American journal of clinical nutrition 111, no. 2 (2020): 429-439, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31828298/.

  • Rachel Ginieis et al., "The “sweet” effect: comparative assessments of dietary sugars on cognitive performance," Physiology & behavior 184 (2018): 242-247, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29225094/.


  • A. Nilsson et al., “Effects of differences in postprandial glycaemia on cognitive functions in healthy middle-aged subjects.” European journal of clinical nutrition 63, no. 1 (2009): 113-20, https://www.nature.com/articles/1602900.

  • Hyuck Hoon Kwon et al., "Clinical and histological effect of a low glycaemic load diet in treatment of acne vulgaris in Korean patients: a randomized, controlled trial," Acta dermato-venereologica 92, no. 3 (2012): 241-246, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22678562/.

  • Robyn N Smith et al., "A low-glycemic-load diet improves symptoms in acne vulgaris patients: a randomized controlled trial," The American journal of clinical nutrition 86, no. 1 (2007): 107-115, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17616769/.

  • Fernando F Anhê et al., "Glucose alters the symbiotic relationships between gut microbiota and host physiology," American journal of physiology-endocrinology and metabolism 318, no. 2 (2020): E111-E116, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31794261/.

  • Robert H, Lustig, Metabolical: The Lure and the Lies of Processed Food, Nutrition, and Modern Medicine (New York: Harper Wave, 2021).

  • William S Yancy et al., "Improvements of gastroesophageal reflux disease after initiation of a low-carbohydrate diet: Five brief case reports," Alternative therapies in health and medicine 7, no. 6 (2001): 116-119, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11712463/.

  • John E Nestler et al., "Insulin stimulates testosterone biosynthesis by human thecal cells from women with polycystic ovary syndrome by activating its own receptor and using inositolglycan mediators as the signal transduction system," The Journal of clinical endocrinology & metabolism 83, no. 6 (1998): 2001-2005, https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/83/6/2001/2865383.

  • Benjamin Bikman, Why We Get Sick: The Hidden Epidemic at the Root of Most Chronic Disease and How to Fight It (New York: BenBella, 2020).

  • John C Mavropoulos et al., "The effects of a low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diet on the polycystic ovary syndrome: a pilot study," Nutrition & metabolism 2 (2005): 35, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1334192/.  

The hacks

  • Alpana P Shukla et al., "Food order has a significant impact on postprandial glucose and insulin levels." Diabetes care 38, no. 7 (2015): e98-e99, https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/38/7/e98.

  • Domenico Tricò et al., "Manipulating the sequence of food ingestion improves glycemic control in type 2 diabetic patients under free-living conditions," Nutrition & diabetes 6, no. 8 (2016): e226, https://www.nature.com/articles/nutd201633/.

  • Kimiko Nishino et al., "Consuming carbohydrates after meat or vegetables lowers postprandial excursions of glucose and insulin in nondiabetic subjects," Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology 64, no. 5 (2018): 316-320, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30381620/.

  • Alpana P Shukla et al., "Effect of food order on ghrelin suppression," Diabetes Care 41, no. 5 (2018): e76-e77, https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/41/5/e76.

  • Saeko Imai et al., “Eating Vegetables First Regardless of Eating Speed Has a Significant Reducing Effect on Postprandial Blood Glucose and Insulin in Young Healthy Women: Randomized Controlled Cross-Over Study.” Nutrients 15, no. 5 (2023):1174, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36904173/.

  • Courtney R Chang et al., "Restricting carbohydrates at breakfast is sufficient to reduce 24-hour exposure to postprandial hyperglycemia and improve glycemic variability,” The American journal of clinical nutrition 109, no. 5 (2019): 1302-1309, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30968140/.

  • Kim J Shimy et al., "Effects of dietary carbohydrate content on circulating metabolic fuel availability in the postprandial state," Journal of the Endocrine Society 4, no. 7 (2020): bvaa062, https://academic.oup.com/jes/article/4/7/bvaa062/5846215.

  • Paula C Chandler-Laney et al., "Return of hunger following a relatively high carbohydrate breakfast is associated with earlier recorded glucose peak and nadir," Appetite 80 (2014): 236-241, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195666314002049.

  • Rachel Galioto et al., "The effects of breakfast and breakfast composition on cognition in adults," Advances in nutrition 7, no. 3 (2016): 576S-589S, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27184286/.

  • Martha Nydia Ballesteros et al., "One egg per day improves inflammation when compared to an oatmeal-based breakfast without increasing other cardiometabolic risk factors in diabetic patients," Nutrients 7, no. 5 (2015): 3449-3463, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25970149/.

  • Keyi Xiao et al., “Effect of a high protein diet at breakfast on postprandial glucose level at dinner time in healthy adults.” Nutrients 15, no. 1, (2022): 85, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36615743/.

  • Hana Kahleova et al., "Eating two larger meals a day (breakfast and lunch) is more effective than six smaller meals in a reduced-energy regimen for patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised crossover study," Diabetologia 57, no. 8 (2014): 1552-1560, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-014-3253-5.

  • Tomoo Kondo et al., "Vinegar intake reduces body weight, body fat mass, and serum triglyceride levels in obese Japanese subjects," Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry 73, no. 8 (2009): 1837-1843, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1271/bbb.90231.

  • Heitor O Santos et al., "Vinegar (acetic acid) intake on glucose metabolism: A narrative review," Clinical nutrition ESPEN 32 (2019): 1-7, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31221273/.

  • Solaleh Sadat Khezri et al., "Beneficial effects of Apple Cider Vinegar on weight management, Visceral Adiposity Index and lipid profile in overweight or obese subjects receiving restricted calorie diet: A randomized clinical trial," Journal of functional foods 43 (2018): 95-102, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1756464618300483.

  • Farideh Shishehbor et al., "Vinegar consumption can attenuate postprandial glucose and insulin responses; a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials," Diabetes research and clinical practice 127 (2017): 1-9, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28292654/.

  • Di Wu et al., "Intake of vinegar beverage is associated with restoration of ovulatory function in women with polycystic ovary syndrome," The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine 230, no. 1 (2013): 17-23, https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/tjem/230/1/230_17/_article/-char/ja/.

  • Panayota Mitrou et al., "Vinegar consumption increases insulin-stimulated glucose uptake by the forearm muscle in humans with type 2 diabetes," Journal of diabetes research 2015 (2015), https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jdr/2015/175204/.

  • E Ostman et al., "Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects," European journal of clinical nutrition 59, no. 9 (2005): 983-988, https://www.nature.com/articles/1602197/.

  • F Brighenti et al., "Effect of neutralized and native vinegar on blood glucose and acetate responses to a mixed meal in healthy subjects," European journal of clinical nutrition 49, no. 4 (1995): 242-247, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7796781/.

  • Stavros Liatis et al., "Vinegar reduces postprandial hyperglycaemia in patients with type II diabetes when added to a high, but not to a low, glycaemic index meal," European journal of clinical nutrition 64, no. 7 (2010): 727-732, https://www.nature.com/articles/ejcn201089.

  • Tomoo Kondo et al., "Vinegar intake reduces body weight, body fat mass, and serum triglyceride levels in obese Japanese subjects," Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry 73, no. 8 (2009): 1837-1843, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1271/bbb.90231.

  • Carol S Johnston et al., "Examination of the antiglycemic properties of vinegar in healthy adults," Annals of nutrition and metabolism 56, no. 1 (2010): 74-79, https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/272133.

  • Carol S Johnston et al., "Preliminary evidence that regular vinegar ingestion favorably influences hemoglobin A1c values in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus," Diabetes research and clinical practice 84, no. 2 (2009): e15-e17, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168822709000813.

  • Lesley N Lilly et al., "The effect of added peanut butter on the glycemic response to a high–Glycemic index meal: A pilot study," Journal of the American College of Nutrition 38, no. 4 (2019): 351-357, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30395790/.

  • David JA Jenkins et al., "Almonds decrease postprandial glycemia, insulinemia, and oxidative damage in healthy individuals," The Journal of nutrition 136, no. 12 (2006): 2987-2992, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17116708/.

  • Lorenzo Nesti et al., "Impact of nutrient type and sequence on glucose tolerance: Physiological insights and therapeutic implications," Frontiers in endocrinology 10 (2019): 144, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30906282/.

  • Diana Gentilcore et al., "Effects of fat on gastric emptying of and the glycemic, insulin, and incretin responses to a carbohydrate meal in type 2 diabetes," The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 91, no. 6 (2006): 2062-2067, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16537685/.

  • Karen E Foster-Schubert et al., "Acyl and total ghrelin are suppressed strongly by ingested proteins, weakly by lipids, and biphasically by carbohydrates," The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 93, no. 5 (2008): 1971-1979, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2386677/.

Further topics

  • Didrik Esperland et al., “Health effects of voluntary exposure to cold water - a continuing subject of debate.” International journal of circumpolar health 81, no. 1 (2022): 2111789, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9518606/.

  • Yoanna M Ivanova et al., “Examining the benefits of cold exposure as a therapeutic strategy for obesity and type 2 diabetes.” Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985) 130, no. 5 (2021): 1448-1459, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33764169/.

  • Gregory J Morton et al., “Evidence That the Sympathetic Nervous System Elicits Rapid, Coordinated, and Reciprocal Adjustments of Insulin Secretion and Insulin Sensitivity During Cold Exposure.” Diabetes 66, no. 4 (2017): 823-834, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5360298/.

  • Meysam Zarezadeh et al., “The effect of cinnamon supplementation on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes or with polycystic ovary syndrome: an umbrella meta-analysis on interventional meta-analyses.” Diabetology & metabolic syndrome 15, no. 1 (2023):127, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10268424/.

  • Venugopal Vijayakumar et al., “Influence of Time of Yoga Practice and Gender Differences on Blood Glucose Levels in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Normal Healthy Adults.” Explore (New York, N.Y.) 14, no. 4 (2018): 283-288, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29803517/.

  • Abhishek Yadav et al., “Effects of Diaphragmatic Breathing and Systematic Relaxation on Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.” International journal of yoga therapy 31, no. 1 (2021): Article_13, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34491340/.

  • Ted Wilson et al., “Relaxation breathing improves human glycemic response.” Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.) 19, no. 7 (2013): 633-636, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23360657/.

  • Shreelaxmi V Hegde et al., “Effects of Yoga Versus Sham Yoga on Oxidative Stress, Glycemic Status, and Anthropometry in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Single-Blinded Randomized Pilot Study.” International journal of yoga therapy 30, no. 1 (2020): 33-39, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31283365/.

  • Aswathy Sreedevi et al., “A Randomized controlled trial of the effect of yoga and peer support on glycaemic outcomes in women with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a feasibility study.” BMC complementary and alternative medicine 17, no. 1 (2017):100, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5297169/.

  • Karol Sokal el al., “Earthing the human body influences physiologic processes.” Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.) 17, no. 4 (2011): 301-308, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3154031/.

  • H A L Mousa, “Health Effects of Alkaline Diet and Water, Reduction of Digestive-tract Bacterial Load, and Earthing.” Alternative Therapies 22, no. 1 (2016): 24-33, https://un.uobasrah.edu.iq/papers/622.pdf.

  • Wendy Menigoz et al., “Integrative and lifestyle medicine strategies should include Earthing (grounding): Review of research evidence and clinical observations.” Explore (New York, N.Y.) 16, no. 3 (2020): 152-160, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550830719305476.

  • James L Oschman et al., “The effects of grounding (earthing) on inflammation, the immune response, wound healing, and prevention and treatment of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.” Journal of inflammation research vol. 8 (2015): 83-96, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4378297/.

  • Lijun Zhao et al., “Time-restricted eating alters the 24-hour profile of adipose tissue transcriptome in men with obesity.” Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.) 31, Suppl 1 (2023): 63-74, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35912794/.

  • JinA Kim et al., “Early Time-Restricted Eating Reduces Weight and Improves Glycemic Response in Young Adults: A Pre-Post Single-Arm Intervention Study.” Obesity facts 16, no. 1 (2023): 69-81, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36318892/.

  • Florence Cook et al., “Compliance of participants undergoing a '5-2' intermittent fasting diet and impact on body weight.” Clinical nutrition ESPEN 52 (2022): 257-261, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36513463/.

  • Andrea T Duran et al., “Breaking Up Prolonged Sitting to Improve Cardiometabolic Risk: Dose-Response Analysis of a Randomized Crossover Trial.” Medicine and science in sports and exercise 55, no. 5 (2023): 847-855, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36728338/.

  • Elise M Faber et al., “The influence of food order on postprandial glucose levels in children with type 1 diabetes.” Pediatric diabetes 19, no. 4 (2018): 809-815, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29527759/.

  • Monika Elżbieta Jach et al., “Yeast Protein as an Easily Accessible Food Source.” Metabolites 12, no. 1 (2022): 63, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8780597/.

  • Andreea Zurbau et al., “The effect of oat β-glucan on postprandial blood glucose and insulin responses: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” European journal of clinical nutrition 75, no. 11 (2021): 1540-1554, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33608654/.

  • Mengdai Xu et al., “Yeast β-glucan alleviates cognitive deficit by regulating gut microbiota and metabolites in Aβ1-42-induced AD-like mice.” International journal of biological macromolecules 161 (2020): 258-270, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32522544/.

  • M Rafraf et al., “Effectiveness of chamomile tea on glycemic control and serum lipid profile in patients with type 2 diabetes,” Journal of endocrinological investigation 38, no. 2 (2015): 163-170, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25194428/.

  • Maria M Bayliak et al., “Chamomile as a potential remedy for obesity and metabolic syndrome,” EXCLI journal 20 (2021): 1261-1286, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8481792/.
  • Saira Saeed Khan et al., “Chamomile tea: herbal hypoglycemic alternative for conventional medicine,” Pakistan journal of pharmaceutical sciences 27, no. 5 (2014): 1509-1514, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25176245/.

  • Jose A Villa-Rodriguez et al., “Green and Chamomile Teas, but not Acarbose, Attenuate Glucose and Fructose Transport via Inhibition of GLUT2 and GLUT5.” Molecular nutrition & food research 61, no. 12 (2017): 10.1002/mnfr.201700566, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28868668/.

  • Charlotte Debras et al., “Artificial Sweeteners and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in the Prospective NutriNet-Santé Cohort.” Diabetes care 46, no. 9 (2023): 1681-1690, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10465821/.

  • Jotham Suez et al., “Personalized microbiome-driven effects of non-nutritive sweeteners onhuman glucose tolerance.” Cell 185, no. 18 (2022): 3307-3328.e19, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35987213/.

  • Camilla Christine Bundgaard Anker et al., “Effect of Steviol Glycosides on Human Health with Emphasis on Type 2 Diabetic Biomarkers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.” Nutrients 11, no. 9 (2019): 1965, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6770957/.

  • Yusaku Iwasaki et al., “GLP-1 release and vagal afferent activation mediate the beneficial metabolic and chronotherapeutic effects of D-allulose.” Nature communications 9, no. 1 (2018): 113, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5760716/.

  • Bettina K. Wölnerhanssen et al., “Gut hormone secretion, gastric emptying, and glycemic responses to erythritol and xylitol in lean and obese subjects.” American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism 310, no. 11 (2016): E1053-61, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27117004/.

  • Dina Ripken et al., “Steviol glycoside rebaudioside A induces glucagon-like peptide-1 and peptide YY release in a porcine ex vivo intestinal model.” Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 62, no. 33 (2014): 8365-70, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25062288/

  • H.E. Ford et al., “Effects of oral ingestion of sucralose on gut hormone response and appetite in healthy normal-weight subjects.” European journal of clinical nutrition 65, no. 4 (2011): 508-13, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21245879/.

  • Stephen D. Anton et al., “Effects of stevia, aspartame, and sucrose on food intake, satiety, and postprandial glucose and insulin levels,” Appetite 55, no. 1 (2010): 37–43, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195666310000826.

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